Facultative symbiosis refers to a type of symbiotic relationship between two or more organisms in which the association is not strictly necessary for the survival or reproduction of either partner, but can provide benefits to one or both partners under certain conditions. In other words, facultative symbiosis is an optional or opportunistic form of symbiosis, where the partners can either live independently or form a beneficial association depending on the environmental conditions. Examples of facultative symbiosis include some mutualistic relationships between plants and fungi, in which the plant provides the fungus with carbon compounds in exchange for nutrients or protection from pathogens, but the plant can also survive without the fungus under certain conditions.

Feedback fixation refers to the process where the end products of a metabolic pathway regulate their own production by inhibiting the activity of one or more enzymes in the pathway. In fungi, this mechanism can regulate the production of enzymes involved in the breakdown of complex molecules such as carbohydrates or lignin, where the products of the breakdown can inhibit the further breakdown of these molecules by regulating the activity of enzymes involved in the process. This can ensure that the fungus uses its resources efficiently and prevents the accumulation of harmful intermediates.

Feedback loop Circadian rhythms in fungi refer to the internal biological processes that follow a 24-hour cycle in response to changes in light and temperature. Fungi possess an internal circadian clock that regulates various cellular and physiological processes such as growth, sporulation, and metabolism. These rhythms are important for coordinating the fungal activities with their environment, such as the timing of spore release or mating. Some fungi exhibit circadian rhythms in response to temperature, oxygen levels, or other environmental factors. The molecular mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms in fungi involve a feedback loop between clock genes and their products, which regulate gene expression and protein synthesis.

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeast, convert organic compounds, such as sugars, into other compounds in the absence of oxygen. This process typically involves the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones and often results in the production of energy and/or other compounds, such as alcohol or lactic acid. Fermentation is used in a variety of applications, such as the production of bread, beer, and wine, and in the industrial production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals.

Aerial hyphae bearing reproductive structures such as conidia, sporangia and basidia.

Fibrillar polysaccharides are long, fibrous molecules made up of chains of simple sugar units (monosaccharides) linked together. They are found in various natural materials, including plant cell walls, bacterial biofilms, and fungal cell walls. Fibrillar polysaccharides play important structural and functional roles in these materials, providing strength, rigidity, and support. In some cases, fibrillar polysaccharides can also serve as a source of energy or nutrients for microorganisms that are capable of breaking them down through enzymatic activity. Examples of fibrillar polysaccharides include cellulose, which is a major component of plant cell walls, and chitin, which is a structural component of fungal cell walls and the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.

filamentous refers to the growth form of many types of fungi, where the organism grows as long, branching filaments called hyphae. These hyphae form a network of interconnected threads that can spread out to cover a large area of substrate, such as soil or decaying plant matter.

The filamentous cell cycle is the series of events that occur during the life cycle of filamentous fungi, which involves the growth and division of elongated, thread-like structures called hyphae. The cycle consists of several stages, including germination of spores, extension of hyphae, branching and septation, and ultimately the production of reproductive structures. Unlike in animal cells, the filamentous cell cycle is not typically characterized by discrete phases such as G1, S, G2, and M, but instead involves a continuous process of growth and division. The timing and regulation of these processes is influenced by various factors such as nutrient availability, environmental conditions, and genetic factors.

Filamentous extension strategy refers to the growth pattern of filamentous fungi where hyphae extend outwards from the fungal colony, leading to the formation of a mycelial network. This process is accomplished through a combination of hyphal elongation and branching, which allows the fungus to efficiently colonize and exploit its environment for nutrients.

Filobasidiales is an order of fungi in the class Agaricomycetes. It includes a diverse group of yeasts and filamentous fungi, some of which are plant pathogens, while others are involved in decomposition and nutrient cycling in various ecosystems

Fission is a type of asexual reproduction in which an organism divides into two or more daughter cells of equal size and genetic makeup. This process can occur in different ways in different organisms, but typically involves the splitting of a single cell or organism into two or more independent individuals. In fungi, cell division occurs through a process called mitosis, where the genetic material of the cell is duplicated and divided into two daughter cells. Fission in mycology can also refer to the process of division that occurs during the formation of some fungal spores, such as conidia. During conidial fission, a specialized cell undergoes multiple rounds of mitosis to produce a chain or cluster of genetically identical spores, which can be dispersed for reproduction.

flagellated refers to a group of fungi that have a unicellular or colonial growth form and are capable of movement through the use of one or more flagella. Flagella are whip-like structures that extend from the cell and propel the organism through a fluid environment, such as water or soil. Flagellated fungi are classified in the group Chytridiomycota and are found in a variety of habitats, including freshwater, soil, and the digestive tracts of animals.

Formin-homology (FH) proteins are a family of proteins found in a wide range of eukaryotic organisms, including fungi, animals, and plants. These proteins are involved in regulating the assembly and organization of the cytoskeleton, which is a network of protein filaments that gives cells their shape, enables movement, and facilitates communication between cells. FH proteins contain conserved domains known as formin homology domains, which are responsible for their ability to bind to and regulate the polymerization of actin and microtubules, two important components of the cytoskeleton. The functions of FH proteins can vary depending on the specific organism and cell type in which they are found, but they generally play key roles in cellular processes such as cell division, cell motility, and cell signaling.

Formins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the organization and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells. Formins act as nucleators for actin polymerization, promoting the formation of long, unbranched actin filaments. They also act as processive elongation factors, guiding the growth and elongation of actin filaments in a specific direction. In addition, formins can interact with other proteins and cellular structures to regulate cell shape, adhesion, and motility. Formins are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell division, cell migration, and cell signaling.

fragmentation refers to a method of asexual reproduction where a part of the mycelium, such as a small piece of hypha, breaks off and develops into a new individual. This process is also known as vegetative propagation, and it allows the fungus to spread rapidly and colonize new areas. Fragmentation is a common mode of reproduction in some types of fungi, particularly those that grow in a filamentous form, such as molds and some yeasts. Fragmentation can occur naturally, through physical disturbance or environmental factors, or it can be induced through human activities, such as cultivation or propagation of mushroom mycelium for commercial purposes.

Fructification refers to the reproductive structures produced by some types of fungi and plants, which are responsible for producing and dispersing spores or seeds. In fungi, fructification structures can take many different forms, including mushrooms, puffballs, stinkhorns, and brackets, and they are usually composed of specialized cells or tissues that produce and release spores for reproduction.

Fumigatin is a mycotoxin produced by several species of fungi, including Aspergillus fumigatus and A. clavatus. It belongs to the class of indolizidine alkaloids and has been shown to have cytotoxic and immunosuppressive properties. Fumigatin has been found to inhibit the growth of cancer cells in vitro and has also been investigated for its potential use as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Functional genomics is a field of molecular biology that focuses on studying the function and interaction of genes and their products, such as proteins and RNA molecules, within living organisms. It involves using high-throughput techniques and bioinformatics tools to analyze large sets of genomic data, including gene expression profiles, genetic variations, and epigenetic modifications, in order to understand the biological processes that underlie normal cellular function and disease. Functional genomics aims to identify the roles of individual genes and their interactions with other genes and environmental factors, and to develop new diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventative strategies based on this knowledge.

Fungal co-operative ventures refer to the collaborative interactions that occur between different species of fungi in nature. These interactions can take many forms, such as mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. In mutualistic relationships, two or more species of fungi benefit each other by exchanging nutrients, protection, or other resources. In commensalism, one species benefits from the other without harming or helping it. In parasitism, one species benefits at the expense of the other. Fungal co-operative ventures are essential for the functioning of many ecosystems and have a significant impact on the diversity and productivity of fungal communities.

Glutathione is a tripeptide molecule composed of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine, and is a vital antioxidant found in many organisms, including fungi. In fungi, glutathione plays an essential role in protecting cells from oxidative stress and maintaining cellular redox homeostasis. It acts as a free radical scavenger, helps to detoxify harmful compounds, and is involved in the regulation of cellular metabolism and gene expression. Fungal glutathione is also important for fungal pathogenesis and virulence, as it enables the fungi to survive under oxidative stress conditions encountered in the host.

Fungal pegs are specialized structures that are formed during the process of fungal mating, also known as sexual reproduction. Fungal pegs are projections of hyphae, the branching filaments that make up the mycelium of a fungus, that grow from the surface of one mating partner and penetrate the cell wall of the other mating partner. Once the peg has penetrated the cell wall, it can facilitate the transfer of genetic material between the two mating partners, leading to the fusion of their nuclei and the formation of a new, genetically diverse individual. Fungal pegs are found in a variety of fungal species, including ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, and play a critical role in the life cycle of these organisms.

Fungal phylogeny refers to the evolutionary relationships among different groups or taxa of fungi. Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary history of organisms, and it is based on similarities and differences in their physical characteristics, genetic makeup, and other traits. Fungal phylogeny is typically inferred from molecular data, such as DNA sequences, which can be used to construct phylogenetic trees that illustrate the relationships among different fungal groups. Fungal phylogeny is an important area of research in mycology, as it provides insights into the origins, diversification, and adaptations of fungi, and can inform our understanding of their ecological roles, evolutionary history, and potential applications in biotechnology and medicine.

Fungal karyotypes refer to the number, size, and organization of chromosomes in the cells of fungi. A karyotype is a visual representation of an organism's chromosome complement, which can provide important information about its genetic makeup and evolution. Fungi have a wide range of karyotypes, ranging from a few large chromosomes in some species to many small chromosomes in others. The karyotype of a fungal species can be determined by various techniques, such as staining and microscopy, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and next-generation sequencing. Fungal karyotypes are important for understanding the genetics and biology of these organisms, as well as for applications such as genetic engineering and strain improvement in biotechnology.

Fusaric acid is a mycotoxin, which is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by some species of fungi in the genus Fusarium. It is also known by other names, such as 5-butylpicolinic acid and Harkness acid. Fusaric acid is produced by some plant-pathogenic species of Fusarium and can cause damage to the roots, stems, and leaves of plants. It has been implicated in causing a range of symptoms in infected plants, including stunted growth, wilting, chlorosis, and necrosis. Fusaric acid has also been shown to have toxic effects on animals and humans, including neurotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects. In addition to its negative impacts on plant and animal health, fusaric acid has been studied for its potential uses in biotechnology and medicine, including as a possible treatment for some human diseases.

An atom with an unstable nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay, emitting radiation in the process. It is a radioactive form of an element that has an excess of either protons or neutrons (or both) in its atomic nucleus, making it unstable.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive molecules derived from oxygen. While ROS are natural byproducts of cellular activity that are essential to signaling, defense, and immune responses, they can cause oxidative stress which damages DNA when excessively accumulated.

Recalcitrance refers to any compound or substance whose physical properties make it resistant to change, degradation, or decomposition by natural processes. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and some chlorinated solvents are examples of recalcitrant compounds.

A reductase enzyme is a type of enzyme that catalyzes reduction reactions, facilitating the transfer of electrons from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule.

Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons from one species to another. Gaining electrons from one species and losing from another results in a change in electronegativity. In the case of heavy metals, a reduction reaction can reduce a species from a toxic soluble, to a non-toxic insoluble state.

Remediation refers to any action designated toward mitigation, cleaning up, or restoring an environment that is, or faces, degradation by overuse, contamination, or pollution.

The rhizosphere refers to the narrow region of soil that surrounds and is mediated by the roots of plants. It is a dynamic interface where complex interactions occur between plant roots, soil microorganisms, and the soil environment.

The Rhizopus genus is a group of filamentous fungi belonging to the class Zygomycetes. It includes various species commonly known as bread molds. Rhizopus fungi are characterized by their rapid growth and ability to reproduce asexually through the production of spores. They typically thrive in decaying organic matter, such as fruits, vegetables, and bread.

Barophiles, also known as piezophiles, are organisms that thrive in high-pressure environments, such as deep-sea or deep-underground habitats. Barophiles are a type of extremophile. They have adaptations to withstand and function optimally under high hydrostatic pressure conditions.

Basidiomycota is a phylum within the kingdom Fungi that includes a diverse group of filamentous fungi commonly known as basidiomycetes. Basidiomycota is characterized by the presence of specialized reproductive structures called basidia, which produce sexual spores called basidiospores.

Basidiomycetes are a group of fungi that produce reproductive structures called basidia. They include mushrooms, toadstools, and bracket fungi. Basidiomycetes play important roles in decomposition, mycorrhizal associations, and wood decay.

A batch reactor is a closed system used in chemical or biological processes where a specific quantity of reactants or substances is added and allowed to react over a period of time. It differs from continuous flow systems as it operates in discrete batches rather than a continuous stream.

Black fungi, also known as dematiaceous fungi, are a group of fungi characterized by dark pigmentation in their cell walls and structures.

Bioaccumulation refers to the gradual accumulation and concentration of substances, such as pollutants or toxic compounds, in the tissues of living organisms over time. It occurs when an organism ingests or absorbs these substances at a faster rate than it can eliminate or metabolize them.

Bioactive compounds are naturally occurring substances or chemicals produced by living organisms that have biological activity or effects on other organisms.

Bioaugmentation is a bioremediation technique that involves introducing selected microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, into contaminated environments to enhance the degradation or transformation of pollutants. The added microorganisms can possess specific metabolic capabilities or enzymatic activities to target the contaminants of concern.

Biochar is a carbon-rich material produced through the pyrolysis or heating of biomass, such as agricultural residues or wood waste, in the absence of oxygen. It is used as a soil amendment to improve soil fertility, moisture retention, and carbon sequestration.

Biocontrol, also known as biological control, is a method of pest management that utilizes living organisms, such as predators, parasites, or pathogens, to suppress or control populations of invasive species. Biocontrol can provide an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides.

Biofilms are communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and are embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances.

Biofiltration is a pollution control technique that utilizes microorganisms in biofilm systems to remove pollutants from air or water streams. The microorganisms, typically immobilized on a solid support, degrade or transform the contaminants as they pass through the biofilter.

Biofuels are fuels derived from renewable biological sources, such as plant biomass or microorganisms. Examples include bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas.

Bionanoparticles are tiny particles or structures with dimensions in the nanoscale range that are derived from biological sources, such as proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids. They have unique physical, chemical, and biological properties, making them valuable in environmental remediation.

Bioprecipitation refers to the process by which microorganisms facilitate the formation of minerals or precipitates from soluble components in their environment. Microorganisms can influence mineral precipitation through their metabolic activities, such as the production of enzymes or binding substances.

Bioremediation is a process that uses biological organisms or their activities to degrade, transform, or remove contaminants from polluted environments. It can involve the use of microorganisms, plants, or enzymes to break down or immobilize pollutants, reducing their toxicity or environmental impact.

Biostimulation is a technique used in bioremediation to stimulate the growth, metabolic activity, or survival of indigenous microorganisms in contaminated environments. This is typically achieved by providing nutrients, electron acceptors, or other substances that enhance the biodegradation or transformation of pollutants.

Biotechnology involves the use of biological systems, organisms, or their components to develop or produce useful products, processes, or technologies. It encompasses various fields, including genetic engineering, industrial fermentation, biopharmaceuticals, and agricultural biotechnology.

Biotic refers to living organisms or factors that are associated with or influenced by living organisms. It includes all living things, such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and their interactions within ecosystems.

Biotransformation is the conversion or transformation of a compound by living organisms. It often involves enzymatic reactions or metabolic processes that modify the chemical structure of a substance, leading to the formation of new compounds.

Biosparging is a technique used in environmental remediation to enhance the natural degradation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in groundwater. It involves the injection of air or oxygen into the subsurface to stimulate the activity of indigenous aerobic microorganisms that can biodegrade the contaminants.

Abiotic refers to factors or processes that are not associated with living organisms. In ecology, abiotic factors include non-living elements or environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, pH, sunlight, and soil composition, which can influence the distribution and behavior of organisms.

accumulation refers to the process by which microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, uptake and store contaminants within their cellular structures. Cellular accumulation can occur through various mechanisms, such as biosorption, active transport, or enzymatic transformation.

Acidophilic organisms are those that can thrive and tolerate highly acidic environments. They have adaptations that allow them to withstand low pH conditions, such as specialized enzymes or membrane structures.

Adsorption refers to the process by with ions or molecules adhere to the surface of a solid material. Adsorption can be thought of as similar to magnetic forces, where the attraction of the absorbate to the adsorbent produces molecular or atomic sticking.

Adducts are chemical compounds formed by the combination or addition of two or more molecules or functional groups. In the context of bioremediation, adducts refer to the formation of covalent bonds between contaminants and cellular components, such as DNA or proteins, leading to modifications or damage.

Amine groups are functional groups consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more hydrogen atoms or alkyl groups. They are found in organic compounds called amines and are important in biological molecules, such as amino acids and alkaloids.

Amylase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen into smaller carbohydrate molecules, such as maltose and glucose.

Anamorphic refers to the asexual or vegetative phase of fungal reproduction, particularly in certain groups of fungi, such as the Ascomycota. During the anamorphic phase, fungi reproduce through asexual spores called conidia, which are produced without the formation of specialized sexual structures.

Annulus refers to a ring-like structure or ring-shaped part found in certain organisms or structures. In mycology, the annulus refers to a ring of tissue or remnants on the stalk of a mushroom cap. It can be an important identification feature for certain mushroom species.

Apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death, is a tightly regulated process of cellular self-destruction. It is a normal physiological mechanism that occurs in multicellular organisms to eliminate damaged or unwanted cells.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is a type of mycorrhizal symbiosis formed between plant roots and fungi belonging to the phylum Glomeromycota. In AM, the fungi colonize the root cells, forming specialized structures called arbuscules, which enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, for the plant host.

Arbuscule is a specialized branching structure formed during the mutualistic symbiotic association between certain plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Arbuscules facilitate nutrient exchange between the plant and fungus, particularly phosphate and nitrogen compounds.

Arid ecosystems are environments characterized by very low rainfall and limited water availability. They include deserts, semi-deserts, and other dry regions. Organisms in arid ecosystems have specific adaptations to survive and thrive under conditions of water scarcity.

Ascocarp is the fruiting body or reproductive structure produced by fungi belonging to the phylum Ascomycota. It contains the asci, which are the sac-like structures that house the sexual spores (ascospores).

Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi that includes many common molds, yeasts, and sac fungi. They are characterized by the production of sac-like structures called asci, which contain spores. Fungi in the Ascomycota phylum have diverse roles ranging from discrete instigators of ecological processes to more varied and critical appointments in decomposition, plant diseases, and symbiotic associations.

A fungal catalase is an enzyme produced by fungi that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Catalase enzymes are essential for fungi to neutralize hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species, and protect themselves from oxidative damage.

Cellulase refers to a group of enzymes capable of breaking down cellulose, a complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants and some other organisms. Cellulase enzymes can hydrolyze the glycosidic bonds within cellulose, allowing for the degradation and conversion of cellulose into simpler sugars.

Chelates are chemical compounds in which a central metal ion is bonded to a large organic molecule called a chelating agent. Chelation involves the formation of multiple coordinate bonds between the metal ion and the chelating agent, resulting in the formation of a stable complex.

Chemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic compounds in water or wastewater. It is used as an indicator of the organic pollutant load and the overall water quality.

Chitin is a complex polysaccharide found in the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods (such as insects and crustaceans), and certain other organisms. It is composed of repeating units of N-acetylglucosamine and provides structural support and protection to these organisms. Chitin is resistant to degradation by many enzymes and is a valuable biomaterial with various applications.

Chitinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of chitin, breaking it down into smaller components. It is produced by various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and some animals. Chitinase plays a role in chitin degradation and recycling, and it has applications in biotechnology, agriculture, and the control of chitin-containing pests.

Chytrids are a group of aquatic fungi belonging to the phylum Chytridiomycota. They are characterized by their flagellated spores and their ability to produce motile zoospores. Some chytrid species are parasites, while others are decomposers, playing important roles in nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems.

Chytridiomycota is a phylum within the kingdom of Fungi that includes the chytrids. Chytridiomycota fungi are primarily aquatic and can be found in various freshwater and marine habitats. They have unique characteristics, including the production of motile zoospores, and play significant ecological roles in nutrient cycling and as decomposers.

Cold-active lipase is an enzyme that exhibits optimal activity at low temperatures. It is produced by organisms adapted to cold environments, such as psychrophilic microorganisms.

Cold-adapted fungi are fungal species that have adapted to thrive in cold environments, such as polar regions or high-altitude habitats. These fungi have physiological and biochemical adaptations that enable them to grow and function at low temperatures.

Complexation refers to the formation of a stable complex between a central metal ion and one or more ligands or chelating agents. The complexation process involves the coordination of the ligands around the metal ion, resulting in the formation of a complex with enhanced stability and specific properties.

Conidiophores are specialized structures in fungi that produce asexual spores called conidia. These spores are typically formed at the tips or sides of conidiophores and are released to facilitate dispersal and reproduction.

Conifers are a group of plants belonging to the division Pinophyta or Coniferophyta. They are characterized by bearing cones and having needle-like or scale-like leaves. Conifers include well-known tree species such as pines, spruces, firs, and cedars.

Cytotoxicity refers to the ability of a substance or agent to cause damage or cell death (cytotoxic effects) in living cells.

Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) is a superfamily of enzymes found in various organisms, including humans. They play a crucial role in the metabolism of drugs, toxins, and endogenous compounds. Cytochrome P450 enzymes catalyze the oxidation reactions involved in the detoxification and biotransformation of a wide range of substances.

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) is a type of mutualistic association between certain fungi and the roots of plants, where the fungus forms a sheath around the root tip without penetrating the cells, and extends hyphae into the surrounding soil. This relationship benefits both the fungus and the plant, as the fungus receives nutrients from the plant in exchange for providing the plant with increased access to water and nutrients in the soil. Ectomycorrhizal fungi are commonly found in forests and other natural ecosystems, where they play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and plant growth.

Effector proteins are proteins produced by fungi that are capable of manipulating host cells to facilitate infection and promote the survival of the fungus. These proteins can modify various cellular processes, such as plant cell wall degradation or interference with plant defense responses, to enable the fungus to penetrate and colonize the host plant. Fungal effector proteins are a key factor in the molecular interactions between fungi and their host plants.

Effluent refers to the wastewater or liquid waste that is discharged from industrial processes or facilities. Effluent can contain a variety of pollutants, including chemicals, heavy metals, organic compounds, and biological agents, depending on the type of industrial activity.

Electroporation is a laboratory technique used to introduce foreign DNA or other molecules into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to the cell membrane. The electrical pulse creates temporary pores in the cell membrane, allowing molecules that would not normally be able to cross the membrane to enter the cell. This technique is commonly used in molecular biology and genetic engineering to introduce new genes or modify existing ones. Electroporation can be used with a variety of cell types, including bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells.

Endocytosis is a cellular process where a cell takes in substances from its external environment by encircling them with a vesicle and bringing them inside the cell. This mechanism is facilitated by the cell membrane, which encloses and engulfs the external material, leading to the formation of a vesicle. Endocytosis can take place through various mechanisms, including phagocytosis (ingestion of large particles), pinocytosis (ingestion of small particles and fluids), and receptor-mediated endocytosis (ingestion of particular molecules that bind to cell surface receptors). Once the vesicle is inside the cell, it can merge with other vesicles or organelles, allowing the internalized substances to be processed, recycled, or conveyed to other parts of the cell.

Endoglucanase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of internal β-1,4-glycosidic bonds within cellulose and related polysaccharides. Cellulose is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature, and is found in the cell walls of plants, algae, and some bacteria. Endoglucanases are produced by a variety of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, as well as by some animals, such as termites and ruminants. These enzymes play an important role in the degradation of plant cell walls and the recycling of carbon and nutrients in natural ecosystems. Endoglucanases are also used in industrial processes, such as the production of biofuels and other bioproducts, as well as in food processing and animal feed.

The endomembrane system is a network of membrane-bound organelles found within eukaryotic cells, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and cell membrane. These organelles work together to transport and modify proteins and lipids, break down waste and cellular debris, and regulate the composition and volume of the cytoplasm. The endomembrane system is responsible for many critical cellular processes, such as protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cellular signaling, and is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis.

Fungal endosomes are membrane-bound compartments found within fungal cells that are involved in various cellular processes, such as endocytosis, protein trafficking, and signaling. These compartments are formed by the inward invagination of the cell membrane, which creates a vesicle that is enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Fungal endosomes can also interact with other cellular structures, such as the Golgi apparatus or lysosomes, to facilitate the transport and processing of molecules. The contents of fungal endosomes can be recycled back to the plasma membrane, sent to other parts of the cell, or degraded by lysosomes. Fungal endosomes play a crucial role in maintaining the proper functioning and organization of fungal cells.

Endomycorrhizal (or arbuscular mycorrhizal) is a type of mutualistic association between certain fungi and the roots of plants, where the fungus penetrates into the plant root cells to form specialized structures called arbuscules. This relationship benefits both the fungus and the plant, as the fungus receives carbohydrates from the plant in exchange for providing the plant with increased access to water and nutrients in the soil. Endomycorrhizal fungi are characterized by their ability to penetrate into the plant root cells, and by the presence of arbuscules, which are highly branched structures that allow for efficient nutrient exchange between the fungus and the plant. Endomycorrhizal fungi are widespread in most terrestrial ecosystems and play a crucial role in plant growth and ecosystem functioning.

Endophytes are microorganisms, typically fungi or bacteria, that live inside the tissues of a plant without causing any apparent harm to the host. Endophytes have been found in virtually all types of plants, including crops, trees, and wildflowers. They may provide a variety of benefits to the plant host, such as improving nutrient uptake, increasing resistance to pests and diseases, and enhancing tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought and extreme temperatures. Some endophytes may also produce bioactive compounds that have potential uses in medicine and agriculture. Endophytic fungi have been found to produce a diverse array of compounds with antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and insecticidal properties, among others.

The endoplasmic reticulum, often abbreviated as ER, is a network of flattened sacs and branching tubules found within eukaryotic cells. It is one of the primary sites for protein and lipid synthesis in the cell, and plays a key role in folding and modifying newly synthesized proteins before they are transported to their final destination. The ER also acts as a transport system for molecules throughout the cell, and is involved in the detoxification of various substances. There are two types of ER: the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which is studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis, and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

The endosymbiont theory is a scientific theory that explains the origins of eukaryotic cells, which are cells that contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. According to this theory, eukaryotic cells evolved from the symbiotic relationship between two or more prokaryotic cells. Specifically, it is believed that the ancestors of eukaryotic cells were once free-living prokaryotes that engulfed or were invaded by other prokaryotes, such as bacteria or archaea, which became endosymbionts. Over time, these endosymbionts became integrated into the host cell and eventually evolved into specialized organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, that perform specific functions within the eukaryotic cell. The endosymbiont theory is supported by a variety of molecular, genetic, and cellular evidence, and is widely accepted as one of the fundamental principles of modern biology.

Endoxylanases are a type of enzyme that catalyze the hydrolysis of the internal bonds within xylan, a complex polysaccharide found in the cell walls of many plants. Xylan is composed of a backbone of xylose sugars with side chains of other sugars, and it is an important component of lignocellulosic biomass, which is the most abundant source of organic carbon on earth. Endoxylanases are produced by a variety of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, as well as by some plants and animals. These enzymes play an important role in the degradation of plant cell walls and the recycling of carbon and nutrients in natural ecosystems. Endoxylanases are also used in various industrial processes, such as the production of biofuels, food processing, and animal feed, where they can improve the digestibility and nutritional value of plant-based materials.

Entomogenous fungi are a group of fungi that are specialized to infect and kill insects as part of their life cycle. These fungi have evolved a variety of mechanisms to penetrate and colonize the bodies of insects, leading to their eventual death. Some entomogenous fungi produce specialized structures called appressoria, which are used to penetrate the insect's cuticle, while others produce toxins or enzymes that can kill the insect directly. Once inside the insect's body, the fungi grow and reproduce, eventually producing structures called fruiting bodies that release spores to infect other insects. Entomogenous fungi are of interest to scientists due to their potential for use in biological pest control, as well as their ability to produce bioactive compounds with potential applications in medicine and agriculture.

An enzyme is a type of protein that catalyzes (speeds up) biochemical reactions in living organisms. Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to occur, which enables the reaction to proceed at a faster rate than it would without the enzyme. Enzymes are specific to particular substrates, meaning that they only catalyze a particular reaction or group of reactions. Enzymes can be found in all living cells and are involved in a wide variety of biochemical processes, including digestion, energy production, and DNA replication.

Ericoid endomycorrhizas are a type of symbiotic association between plant roots and fungi, primarily found in the Ericaceae family of plants, which includes blueberries, cranberries, and heather. In this relationship, the fungi colonize the outer layers of the root cells, forming structures called hyphae, which penetrate the cell walls and intercellular spaces of the root cortex. The hyphae produce a characteristic ericoid sheath around the root, which is thought to play a role in protecting the plant from pathogens and other stresses. The fungus benefits from receiving carbon from the plant, while the plant benefits from increased uptake of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron from the soil. Ericoid endomycorrhizas are adapted to nutrient-poor, acidic soils, and are thought to play an important role in the ecology of heathland and moorland ecosystems.

Ergosterol is a type of sterol that is found in the cell membranes of fungi, including yeasts and molds. It is similar in structure to cholesterol, which is a type of sterol found in animal cell membranes, but has some distinct differences. Ergosterol plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and fluidity of fungal cell membranes, and is therefore essential for the growth, development, and survival of fungal cells.

Esterases are a type of enzyme that catalyze the hydrolysis of ester bonds, which are present in a wide range of organic molecules. Esterases play important roles in a variety of biological processes, including the metabolism of dietary fats and oils, the synthesis and breakdown of various signaling molecules, and the detoxification of certain chemicals in the body. In addition, esterases have many industrial applications, including the production of detergents, pharmaceuticals, and fine chemicals.

Eucarpic is a term used to describe a type of fungal growth pattern where the organism produces fruiting bodies, such as mushrooms or spore-bearing structures, from a mycelium that continues to grow and expand. In eucarpic fungi, the fruiting bodies are usually produced on specialized hyphae, which are extensions of the mycelium that differentiate into specific structures for spore production. This is in contrast to holocarpic fungi, which produce fruiting bodies from the entire organism and are typically unicellular. Eucarpic fungi are commonly found in the soil, on decaying plant matter, and in other organic substrates.

Eukaryotic refers to the type of cell that has a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells are found in organisms such as animals, plants, fungi, and protists, and are distinguished from prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus and organelles.

Eutrophication is a process by which a body of water becomes enriched with nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, which stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae. This can occur naturally over a long period of time or may be accelerated by human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and sewage discharge.

The excess nutrients can lead to an overgrowth of algae and other plants, known as an algal bloom. As the plants die and decompose, they consume oxygen from the water, leading to a depletion of oxygen levels, or hypoxia, which can lead to the death of fish and other aquatic organisms.

Ergot alkaloids are a class of organic compounds produced by certain species of fungi, particularly those in the genus Claviceps. These compounds are toxic to humans and animals, and can cause a range of symptoms including hallucinations, convulsions, and gangrene. Ergot alkaloids are produced by the fungus as a defense mechanism against insects and other predators, and can also act as a growth regulator to help the fungus colonize its host plant. Despite their toxic effects, ergot alkaloids have been used in medicine for centuries, particularly as a treatment for migraines and other headaches. They are also used as precursors in the synthesis of a number of important drugs, including LSD and certain antipsychotic medications.

Galactanases are a type of enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of galactan, a complex carbohydrate that is found in plant cell walls and other biological materials. Galactanases are able to hydrolyze the glycosidic bonds between galactose residues in galactan molecules, releasing galactose as a monosaccharide.

Galactans are complex carbohydrates made up of chains of galactose molecules that are commonly found in plant cell walls and certain types of algae. They can vary in their structure, with different types of linkages between the galactose units, and may also contain other sugars or chemical groups. Galactans have various biological functions, such as providing structural support and contributing to the texture of foods.

Galectins are a family of proteins that bind specifically to carbohydrate molecules containing galactose, such as those found on the surface of cells. They are involved in various biological processes, including cell adhesion, signaling, and immune response.

Gallic acid is a type of organic acid that is found naturally in various plants, particularly in gallnuts, sumac, and tea leaves. It has antioxidant properties and is used in a variety of applications, such as in the production of dyes, tannins, and pharmaceuticals. Gallic acid is also commonly used as a food additive and preservative.

Gasteromycetes, also known as "gasteroid fungi", are a group of fungi that produce their spores internally in a spherical or pear-shaped structure called a "gasterothecium" or "gasterocarp". Unlike other fungi that release their spores into the air, gasteromycetes rely on various mechanisms such as rain or animal interactions to disperse their spores. The group includes many familiar mushroom-like forms such as puffballs, earthstars, and bird's nest fungi. Gasteromycetes are found in various habitats such as forests, grasslands, and deserts and play important ecological roles in decomposing organic matter and forming mutualistic relationships with plant roots.

Geomycology is a scientific field that studies the interactions between fungi and the environment, particularly with respect to the role of fungi in geological processes. It involves the study of fungal communities in soils, rocks, and other substrates, and the ways in which fungi contribute to the cycling of nutrients and the formation of minerals. Geomycology also investigates the potential use of fungi in bioremediation of contaminated soils and other environmental restoration applications. The field brings together knowledge from mycology, microbiology, geology, and environmental science to gain a better understanding of the ecological functions of fungi in natural systems.

Geosiphonaceae is a family of fungi-like organisms that belong to the Glomeromycota phylum. They are characterized by a unique symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria, where the fungal partner (Geosiphon) forms a specialized structure that houses the cyanobacteria, allowing them to fix atmospheric nitrogen and provide organic carbon to the fungus. This mutualistic relationship is thought to have played a role in the evolution of land plants by contributing to the development of nitrogen-rich soils. Geosiphonaceae are found in a variety of terrestrial habitats, including forests, grasslands, and arid regions, and are of interest to researchers for their potential applications in biotechnology and agriculture.

Geranylpyrophosphate, also known as geranyl diphosphate or GPP, is a precursor molecule in the biosynthesis of various terpenes and terpenoids. It is a diphosphate ester formed by the condensation of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) with dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), which are themselves produced from the isoprene unit. Geranylpyrophosphate serves as the starting material for the biosynthesis of a wide range of compounds, including carotenoids, sterols, and certain plant hormones, as well as essential oils and other secondary metabolites found in plants, fungi, and bacteria.

Gibberellins are a class of plant hormones that play a key role in regulating various aspects of plant growth and development, including stem elongation, seed germination, and flowering. They are produced in various parts of the plant, including the shoot apical meristem, young leaves, and developing seeds, and are transported throughout the plant via the phloem. Gibberellins stimulate cell division and elongation in stem and leaf tissue, resulting in taller and larger plants. They also promote the breakdown of starches in germinating seeds, allowing them to mobilize stored energy and grow. Gibberellins have been used in agriculture to improve crop yields, particularly in crops that are prone to lodging (falling over) due to excessive stem elongation.

Gigasporaceae is a family of fungi that belongs to the phylum Glomeromycota. It comprises arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi that form mutualistic associations with the roots of plants. These fungi penetrate the roots and form highly branched structures called arbuscules, which provide an increased surface area for nutrient exchange between the fungus and the host plant. Gigasporaceae species are found in a wide range of terrestrial habitats and are important in promoting plant growth and health, as well as contributing to soil fertility. They are also used in sustainable agriculture practices, as they can reduce the need for chemical fertilizers by improving plant nutrient uptake.

Gloeophyllales is an order of fungi that belongs to the phylum Basidiomycota. It contains a single family, Gloeophyllaceae, which comprises a group of saprotrophic fungi that decompose dead wood and plant material. Members of this order are characterized by the presence of a gelatinous or mucilaginous layer on the surface of their fruiting bodies, as well as by their ability to produce a range of enzymes that allow them to break down complex organic compounds. Gloeophyllales fungi are found in temperate and tropical forests around the world, where they play an important role in nutrient cycling and contribute to the maintenance of healthy forest ecosystems. They are also of interest to researchers for their potential applications in biotechnology, including the production of enzymes for use in the pulp and paper industry, as well as in the development of new drugs and other biologically active compounds.

In biological classification, a genus is a taxonomic rank that groups closely related species together. It is one level above the species level and below the family level.

Glomus is a genus of fungi belonging to the phylum Glomeromycota. They form mutualistic associations with plant roots, known as arbuscular mycorrhizae, in which the fungi facilitate the exchange of nutrients between the plant and soil. Glomus fungi are important in enhancing plant growth and nutrient uptake.

Glycoproteins are proteins that have carbohydrate chains (glycans) attached to them. They are found throughout living organisms and play various roles, including cell signaling, immune response, and structural support. The carbohydrate chains in glycoproteins can affect protein stability, solubility, and function.

Glucans are polysaccharides made up of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are commonly found in plants, fungi, and some bacteria. Glucans serve as structural components in cell walls, providing strength and rigidity. They can also function as storage forms of glucose or play roles in cellular processes.

Galactomannan is a polysaccharide composed of galactose and mannose units. It is commonly found in the cell walls of plants and some fungi. Galactomannan has various industrial applications, such as in food additives, pharmaceutical formulations, and as a thickening or stabilizing agent.

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex or Golgi body, is a cellular organelle present in eukaryotic cells. It is involved in the processing, sorting, and packaging of proteins and lipids for transport to specific destinations within the cell or for secretion outside the cell. The Golgi apparatus consists of a series of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae.

Glutathione is a tripeptide molecule composed of the amino acids glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. It acts as an important antioxidant and plays a critical role in cellular redox balance, detoxification processes, and the maintenance of cellular health. Glutathione is found in high concentrations in various tissues and is involved in numerous physiological processes.

Glucose oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to produce hydrogen peroxide and gluconic acid. It is produced by certain microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria.

Genomics is the branch of molecular biology that focuses on the study of an organism's entire genome, which encompasses all of its genes and genetic material. It involves the sequencing, assembly, annotation, and analysis of genomes to understand the structure, function, and evolution of genes and genomes.

Geogenic refers to geological or Earth-derived factors or processes that influence or contribute to a specific phenomenon. It is often used to describe natural occurrences or features that arise from Earth's geology, such as geogenic pollutants, geogenic minerals, or geogenic processes like erosion and mineral formation.

Immobilized refers to a state in which a substance or entity is fixed or attached to a support or matrix, restricting its movement or enabling its retention in a specific location. In bioremediation or biotechnological applications, microorganisms or enzymes can be immobilized onto solid surfaces or within porous materials to enhance their stability, activity, and ease of handling.

Inoculation refers to the introduction or addition of microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, into a medium or environment for the purpose of initiating or promoting their growth. It is commonly done to establish a culture, initiate fermentation, or introduce beneficial microorganisms into a soil or plant system.

Insoluble refers to a substance or compound that does not dissolve or readily mix with a specific solvent or liquid.

Intracellular refers to processes or structures that occur or exist within the confines of a cell.

Intracellular detoxification refers to the cellular processes involved in the removal or transformation of toxic substances or pollutants within the cell. It typically involves enzymatic reactions or metabolic pathways that modify or eliminate harmful compounds to protect the cell from their detrimental effects.

Laccase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of a wide range of compounds by utilizing molecular oxygen. It is produced by various organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and plants. Laccase enzymes have industrial applications, such as in the degradation of lignin, dye decolorization, and wastewater treatment.

Lignin is a complex and highly abundant polymer found in the cell walls of plants. It provides strength, rigidity, and hydrophobicity to plant tissues. Lignin plays a crucial role in plant structure and defense but can be challenging to break down due to its complex and heterogeneous nature.

Lipids are a diverse group of biomolecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include fats, oils, phospholipids, and sterols.

Lignocellulose refers to the complex structural material found in the cell walls of plants, composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.

Ligninase is a collective term for enzymes that can break down or modify lignin, a complex polymer found in plant cell walls. Ligninases include enzymes such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase, which are produced by certain fungi and bacteria.

Ligninolytic enzymes refer to a group of enzymes produced by certain fungi and bacteria that can degrade or modify lignin. They include lignin peroxidases, manganese peroxidases, laccases, and other related enzymes. Ligninolytic enzymes play a crucial role in the breakdown and utilization of lignin in nature.

Lysis refers to the process of breaking down or rupturing a cell or cellular structure, leading to the release of cellular contents. It can occur naturally or be induced by physical, chemical, or biological means. Lysis is a critical step in various biological processes, such as cell death, release of viral particles, or extraction of intracellular components.

Lichens are composite organisms consisting of a symbiotic association between fungi and photosynthetic partners, such as algae or cyanobacteria.

Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids or fats, breaking them down into glycerol and fatty acids. Lipases are produced by various organisms, including animals, plants, and microorganisms.

Liposomes are small spherical vesicles composed of lipid bilayers. They can encapsulate and deliver a variety of substances, including drugs, enzymes, or genetic material.

Liquid phase methods refer to chemical or biological processes that take place in a liquid medium.

Nanoparticles are particles with dimensions in the nanometer range (1-100 nanometers). These particles exhibit unique properties due to their small size, such as increased surface area, high reactivity, and altered physical and chemical properties compared to their bulk counterparts.

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the manipulation, study, and application of materials and devices at the nanoscale.

Nitrogen-fixing refers to the biological process in which certain bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi convert non-reactive atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form of nitrogen, such as ammonia (NH₃) or nitrate (NO₃⁻). This process is essential for nitrogen to become available to plants and other organisms in ecosystems.

Nutrient cycling (nutrient recycling) refers to the movement and transformation of essential elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. It involves the uptake, assimilation, release, and recycling of nutrients by organisms, ensuring their availability for other organisms and sustaining the overall functioning of the ecosystem.

Parasitic refers to an organism that lives in or on another organism (called the host) and obtains nutrients from the host, often causing harm or damage in the process. Parasites can be found in various forms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and multicellular parasites like worms and ticks.

Peroxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of various substrates using hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) as a cofactor. It plays a crucial role in processes such as the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, defense against pathogens, and the synthesis of important biomolecules.

Pesticides are substances used to control, repel, or kill pests, including insects, weeds, fungi, and other organisms that may damage crops, harm livestock, or pose threats to human health. Pesticides can be synthetic chemicals or naturally derived compounds and are used in agriculture, public health, and other industries.

Phenol monooxygenase is an enzyme involved in the metabolism of phenolic compounds by microorganisms. It catalyzes the hydroxylation of phenolic compounds, such as phenol, by incorporating molecular oxygen into the substrate.

Phytochelatins are small, cysteine-rich peptides synthesized by plants and some microorganisms in response to heavy metal stress. They play a role in binding and sequestering heavy metal ions, helping plants to tolerate and detoxify heavy metal pollution.

Phytohormones, also known as plant hormones or plant growth regulators, are chemical compounds produced by plants that regulate growth, development, and responses to environmental stimuli. Examples of phytohormones include auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene.

Phytoremediation is an approach to environmental remediation that uses plants to remove, detoxify, or stabilize pollutants from soil, water, or air.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are a group of organic compounds composed of fused aromatic rings. They are formed during the incomplete combustion of organic matter and are often found in environmental contaminants, such as air pollution, cigarette smoke, and some industrial byproducts. PAHs are of concern due to their toxic and carcinogenic properties.

Polymerase Chain Reaction is a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA.

Precipitation refers to the process by which dissolved substances or particles in a liquid or gas form solid particles and settle out of the solution or suspension. It commonly occurs when two or more substances react chemically, resulting in the formation of a solid that is insoluble in the solvent.

Protease is an enzyme that breaks down proteins by catalyzing their hydrolysis into smaller peptide fragments or amino acids.

Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. They are essential macromolecules in living organisms, performing diverse functions, including structural support, enzymatic catalysis, transportation, immune response, and cell signaling.

Proteomics is the study of the complete set of proteins expressed by a cell, tissue, or organism at a given time. It involves techniques for identifying, quantifying, and characterizing proteins, their interactions, modifications, and functions, providing insights into the complex protein networks underlying biological processes.

Purification is the process of removing impurities or contaminants from a substance to obtain a pure or refined form. It involves various techniques, such as filtration, distillation, chromatography, and precipitation, to separate and eliminate unwanted substances from the target material.

In fungi, the hamathecium (plural: hamathecia) refers to sterile tissues that occur within the fruiting body and serve to support or protect the reproductive structures. These tissues are usually made up of sterile cells or hyphae and are distinct from the fertile tissue that produces spores. The hamathecium can take various forms depending on the fungal group, and may play a role in the dispersal or survival of the spores. For example, in some ascomycetes, the hamathecium may contain sterile cells that help to disperse the spores by breaking up the conidia or aiding in their discharge.

Haploid refers to a cell or organism that contains a single set of chromosomes, which is half the number of chromosomes found in a diploid cell or organism. In other words, haploid cells have one copy of each chromosome, while diploid cells have two copies.

Haploid cells are formed during the process of meiosis, which is a type of cell division that produces gametes (reproductive cells) such as spores and eggs. When two haploid gametes combine during fertilization, they form a diploid zygote with two sets of chromosomes.

Haptoglossales is an order of fungi belonging to the class Arthoniomycetes. The members of this order are characterized by their small, crustose (crusty), and saprobic or lichenized (living in symbiosis with algae) habit. They are found growing on rocks, soil, and trees in different habitats around the world.

Harpellales is an order of aquatic fungi that belong to the phylum Zygomycota. These fungi are unique in their ability to live inside the guts of insects, such as mayflies and stoneflies, as gut endosymbionts. They help their insect hosts by assisting in the digestion of food and providing essential nutrients. The Harpellales are characterized by their thin-walled, aseptate hyphae, and production of sporangia that contain non-motile spores.

The Hartig net is a complex of hyphae that forms between the cells of a plant root and the hyphae of a mycorrhizal fungus. It is a key structure involved in nutrient exchange between the plant and fungus in ectomycorrhizal symbiosis, where the fungus forms a sheath around the roots but does not penetrate the cells. The Hartig net is responsible for the transfer of water, minerals, and organic compounds between the plant and the fungus.

HC-toxin, also known as cyclic tetrapeptide, is a secondary metabolite produced by some strains of the fungus Cochliobolus carbonum. It is known for its ability to inhibit the enzyme histone deacetylase (HDAC), which is involved in the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotic cells. The inhibition of HDAC by HC-toxin can lead to cell cycle arrest and programmed cell death (apoptosis) in certain plant cells.

Heat-shock proteins (HSPs) are a group of proteins that are produced by cells in response to stress, such as exposure to high temperatures or toxins. These proteins help protect cells from damage caused by stress, by helping to refold damaged proteins or by targeting damaged proteins for degradation. HSPs are found in all living organisms, including fungi, and play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and survival.

Heavy metals are a group of metallic chemical elements that have a high atomic weight and density, typically more than five times that of water. Some common examples of heavy metals include lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, and arsenic.

Hemibiotrophic fungi are plant pathogens that exhibit a combination of biotrophic and necrotrophic lifestyles during different phases of their life cycle. In the biotrophic phase, they colonize living host cells and obtain nutrients without causing significant damage to the plant tissues. In the necrotrophic phase, they switch to a necrotrophic lifestyle and cause cell death and tissue degradation, obtaining nutrients from dead or dying host cells.

Hemicellulases are enzymes that break down hemicellulose, which is a complex carbohydrate component of plant cell walls. These enzymes are produced by a variety of organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and some animals, and are involved in the degradation of plant material in the environment. Hemicellulases can be classified into different types based on their mode of action, such as endohemicellulases, exohemicellulases, and xyloglucanases. They play an important role in the production of biofuels, as they can convert hemicellulose into sugars that can be fermented to produce ethanol or other biofuels.

Hemicellulose is a complex carbohydrate molecule that is a major component of plant cell walls along with cellulose and lignin. It consists of several different types of sugar molecules linked together in a complex branched structure. Hemicellulose plays an important role in maintaining the structural integrity of plant cells and provides a source of energy for some organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, that are able to break down this molecule.

A heterokaryon is a cell containing two or more genetically distinct nuclei. It is commonly found in fungi, which can fuse hyphae (filaments) from different individuals to form a single organism with multiple nuclei in each cell. The nuclei in a heterokaryon can interact and exchange genetic material, but they remain physically separate and do not fuse to form a single nucleus. This characteristic allows for genetic recombination and diversity in fungal populations.

Heterokonts, also known as stramenopiles, are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms characterized by the presence of two unequal flagella with distinct structures. This group includes diatoms, brown algae, and some types of protozoa and fungi. Heterokonts are found in a variety of aquatic and terrestrial habitats and are important members of many ecological communities.

(Having different forms) Heteromorphic refers to a state where the components or structures of a system or organism are visibly different from one another in shape, size, or other characteristics. This term is commonly used in biology to describe the existence of different physical forms or phases in the life cycle of certain organisms, such as plants and animals.

Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot produce their own organic compounds from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide and water, and therefore, obtain their nutrients and energy by consuming other organisms or their organic products.

Heterothallic fungi are fungi that require two different genetically compatible mating types to reproduce sexually. In other words, they cannot self-fertilize and require a partner that has a different mating type to complete the sexual reproduction process. This type of reproduction is called heterothallism. Examples of heterothallic fungi include many Ascomycota and Basidiomycota species.

Hexatriene is a molecule composed of six carbon atoms and three double bonds between them. It is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C6H8. Hexatriene is a conjugated system, meaning that the double bonds are in a alternating single-double-single pattern, which gives it unique electronic properties. It is used in organic chemistry as a model compound for studying molecular orbitals and other aspects of chemical bonding.

The hexose monophosphate pathway, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway, is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. It is responsible for the production of NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate, which are important for various cellular processes such as nucleotide synthesis and cellular respiration. The pathway starts with the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to ribulose-5-phosphate, followed by a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that generate NADPH and other sugars. The hexose monophosphate pathway is an important metabolic pathway in many organisms, including fungi, plants, and animals.

A surface covered with shaggy hairs, such as the cap of a mushroom

a surface covered with bristle-like hairs.

Histones are highly basic proteins that are found in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, where they help package DNA into structures called nucleosomes. They play a critical role in regulating gene expression and maintaining the structural integrity of chromosomes. Histones are small, globular proteins that are rich in the positively charged amino acids lysine and arginine. There are five main types of histones: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4, which combine to form the nucleosome core particle.

Hymenium refers to the spore-bearing tissue of the fruiting body of a fungus. It is a layer of cells lining the inner surface of the fruiting body that produces spores, which are the reproductive cells of the fungus.

Hydrolases are a type of enzyme that catalyze the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules through the addition of water molecules. Specifically, hydrolases cleave the chemical bonds between the subunits of complex molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates, by adding a molecule of water to the bond. This process is known as hydrolysis.

Hydrolytic refers to a chemical reaction or process that involves the addition of water molecules to break down a larger molecule into smaller molecules or subunits.

Hydrophobic is a term used to describe a substance or material that repels or does not mix well with water. It comes from the Greek words "hydro" meaning water and "phobia" meaning fear.

Hyphae are long, filamentous structures that form the basic building blocks of multicellular fungi. They are thread-like structures that grow from the tips and sides of existing hyphae and can branch and fuse to form a complex network of interconnected tubes known as mycelium.

Macrofungi are larger-sized fungi that produce visible fruiting bodies, such as mushrooms, brackets, or puffballs. They are distinct from microfungi, which are microscopic in size. Macrofungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, mycorrhizal symbionts, and in nutrient cycling.

Metalloids are elements that exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals. They have intermediate characteristics between metals and nonmetals in terms of electrical conductivity, chemical reactivity, and physical properties. Examples of metalloids include silicon, germanium, arsenic, and antimony.

Microalgae are microscopic algae that are photosynthetic microorganisms. They can be single-celled or colonial and are found in diverse aquatic environments, including freshwater and marine systems. Microalgae play important roles in primary production, nutrient cycling, and are potential sources of biofuels, food supplements, and other valuable products.

Mycorrhizal refers to the symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots. Mycorrhizal fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants, where they provide nutrients, such as phosphorus, to the plant in exchange for carbohydrates produced by the plant through photosynthesis. Mycorrhizal associations are essential for nutrient uptake and plant growth.

Mycorrhizosphere refers to the region or zone of soil surrounding the roots of plants that are colonized by mycorrhizal fungi. It represents the interface between the plant roots, soil, and the activities of mycorrhizal fungi. The mycorrhizosphere is characterized by enhanced nutrient availability, microbial interactions, and plant-fungal symbiotic processes.

Micropollutants are chemical substances present in low concentrations in the environment that can have adverse effects on ecosystems and organisms, even at very low doses. They include various organic and inorganic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products, and industrial chemicals.

Mycoremediation refers to the use of fungi or fungal processes to degrade, transform, or detoxify pollutants in the environment.

Marine fungi are fungi that inhabit marine environments, including oceans, seas, and estuaries.

Mesophiles are organisms that thrive within a moderate temperature range, typically between 20 to 45 degrees Celsius. They are adapted to environments with average temperatures and include many common microorganisms and plants.

Microflora refers to the collective community of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, that inhabit a particular environment, such as the human gut, soil, or water. Microflora can have important ecological functions and influence the health and functioning of the ecosystem or host organism.

Mycelia is the plural form of mycelium. Mycelium refers to the vegetative part of fungi, consisting of a network of branching hyphae. It serves as the main body of the fungus and is involved in nutrient uptake, growth, and reproduction.

Mycelium is the vegetative, thread-like structure of a fungus composed of branching hyphae. It serves as the main body of the fungus and is responsible for nutrient absorption and distribution. Mycelium plays a crucial role in the growth, development, and reproduction of fungi.

Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship between two organisms from different species in which both partners benefit. It involves an exchange of resources, services, or protection. Mutualistic interactions can occur between plants and pollinators, plants and mycorrhizal fungi, or between different species within ecosystems.